If the industrial revolution is to be considered a theme of 19th-century history, then certainly the advent of massed-produced nails in the late 18th century is a good example. Like so many other technological innovations attributed to this period, the massed-produced nail is not merely an example of new technology, but a major contributor to 19-century themes such as westward expansion, a notable increase in home ownership by the common person, the development of a strong middle class, and a rapidly growing population.

The American Revolution caused nail shortages throughout the American colonies because most nail production occurred in England. The English cut off the supply of nails to the colonies during the American Revolution. This created an even worse shortage of nails, which caused the burning of buildings in order to collect the nails.

Prior to the availability of massed-produced nails, nails were expensive and difficult to come by. Buildings were even purposely burnt to the ground in order to retrieve the nails. But when massed-produced nails became available, the supply was greatly increased which also lowered the cost. The increased availability and lower cost of nails along with the new balloon-frame method of construction, allowed unskilled labor to build housing rapidly and cheaply. As a result, housing became more easily and cheaply attained by commoners, which for many lead to increased property values; the development of equity; and ultimately generational entry in to the middle class.

Nineteenth-century population growth was rapid as people moved ever more westward. Stone and brick and post and beam construction was time-consuming, expensive and required skilled labor. These factors restricted the rate of westward movement. The introduction of massed-produced nails and pre-cut, uniformly dimensional lumber greatly reduced construction time and costs. As a result, westward expansion was increased both in terms of population and speed.

Since massed-produced nails helped to accelerate westward movement in the United States, it stands to reason they also contributed to Native American displacement. Encouraged by the U.S. government through Manifest Destiny, the Oregon Trail, the Louisiana Purchase and the dream of riches, more and more settlers moved westward. Balloon-framed design, massed-produced dimensionally uniform lumber, and mass-produced nails allowed rapid, low-skilled construction of housing. This increased the rate and reduced the cost at which people could settle as they claimed land for themselves – obviously at the expense of indigenous peoples. Other factors are involved, but certainly the sheer population numbers of westward movement contributed to Native American displacement.

As settled population of lands beyond the Mississippi grew, new states were created and added to the union. Tensions involving the issue of slavery where the South remained generally pro-slavery and the north was developing an abolitionist movement increased as each state was designated as either a free or slave state - especially among states whose land area encompassed both northern and southern latitudes. These tensions were an important factor eventually leading to the Civil War - a major event of U.S. history.

The story of the nail is embedded into the story of the industrial revolution. One theme or thesis of American history is disparity between economic development between north and south. The north, so the thesis states, embraced the fruits of the industrial revolution more readily and completely than did the south. While the south remained heavily dependent on slavery, the north moved more toward an industrialized, and therefore a more vibrant economy. The more stagnant southern economy could not fully complete against the lively and adaptive northern economy.

The massed-produced nail’s involvement in westward expansion led to political, social, and economic tensions between west and east – even within individual states. The “elite” of the east maintained large plantations or various commercial businesses whereas westerners operated mostly small farms and entrepreneurial enterprises. This meant that more wealth and political power was concentrated in the east. This sometimes led to unbalanced distribution of political power where the east enjoyed more political influence as a result of having attained more economic wealth.

Rethinking this question, I realize I left out the how transistors led to integrated circuits, which in turn, led to computers made available to the masses. The 20th-century begins an evolution from the industrial age to the information age. Information becomes not only disseminated rapidly and efficiently, but becomes a commodity. For example, Facebook uses members’ information as its primary product. Information is power. Information is profit. Information is knowledge.

Since the internet has increased information accessibility and distribution more widely throughout world population, how does this affect the relationship between governments and their populations? It has been debated whether this increased democratization of information, would expand the powers of government or conversely enhance various movements toward freedom and liberty. Regardless of this debate’s outcome, it is difficult to deny the profound effect transistors have had through the development of the internet on the balance of power between rulers and the ruled. For example, Black Lives Matters exploded into the public consciousness very rapidly after the Trevon Martin incident. Would have the Black Lives Matter organization’s rapid and thorough expansion throughout western civilization occurred as fast as it did minus the deployment of digital technology?

Transistors have enabled giant leaps in economic growth. For example, the development of the internet economy beginning in the 1990’s has had profound effects on personal shopping, as well as interstate and international trade. Product manufacture, ordering online, and delivery via road vehicle or drone all rely on the technological advancements inspired by the onset of the transistor. This is reducing reliance on brick and mortar stores and increasing the efficiency and ease at which people acquire merchandise. For example, my son is presently researching universities and colleges to which he might attend. We could spend hours driving, burning fuel, and suffering traffic aggravations by visiting and touring these places of higher learning or we could save time, money and exacerbation by simply turning on the computer in the blissful comforts of home and tour virtually. Why travel to Wal-Mart when you can sit on your couch, press a few buttons on the computer, and simply await delivery?

Of course these changes in the way we do commerce also present yet another example of capitalism’s propensity toward creative destruction. As jobs related to brick and mortar operations decline, new opportunities arise in the retail and wholesale industries. The digital economy destroys one economic mode, but creates a new one. The driver of the vehicle delivering Pizza becomes the operator of a drone delivering that same pizza. The person measuring your shoe size at the local Rack Room becomes a data entry clerk responsible for assuring the correct shoe delivery to your door. The burger flipper at Burger King becomes a robot technician maintaining robots who now provide that function.

Even finance has changed drastically since the transistor’s introduction in the 20th-century. Stocks and bonds can be bought and sold instantaneously by anyone anytime due to online trade. Banking is done online. Money is transferred digitally to and from accounts. The necessity of cash and coin is decreasing as credit and debit cards dominate the manipulation of the family budget. For example, yesterday I went to a McDonalds drive through, but their computer was down so the sign said “cash only”. This proved a major obstacle in this purchase since I rarely carry cash!

Lastly, environmental health is undoubtedly a theme of the 20th-century. The first Earth Day was celebrated in 1970 and the environmental movement has grown tremendously ever since. Digital technology places a strain on the environment. The manufacture of semiconductors requires vast amounts of raw materials. Mining, electrical usage and water usage are important factors contributing to environmental decline brought on by the production of semiconductors. For example, it takes “3,787 gallon of water, 27 pounds of chemicals and 29 cubic feet of hazardous gases to produce 1/8-inch of a silicon wafer”. (Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/49cdfe3e-a9de-4952-9cd8-f7b101397e31@4.35.)

Transistors have contributed to incredible changes in the 20th-century and beyond. It is almost impossible to fix anything on your own anymore due to the myriad of computer chips embedded in almost every mechanical and electrical system. Education no longer requires physical interactional presence between teacher and student. Witness this class! Soon brick and mortar school buildings will become a thing of nostalgia. Transportation of all modes are becoming more and more automatized where soon humans will no longer be necessary to operate trains, planes, and automobiles. Medical advancements increasingly rely on computer chips from CT scans to my father-in-law’s pacemaker. If Moore’s Law proves to remain viable, then truly the humorous machinations of a great cartoon called “The Jetsons” will become reality.

I would begin with the questions following:

Were the inventors awarded these patents competing with other inventors for patent rights?
When were the patents issued?
What are the function or functions of the new invention?
In which country was the patent issued?
Was the patent an advancement of prior technology or was it an addition or advancement
to already existing technology?

I would also add more open ended questions such as:

How did these patents change societies?
What are historical significances of the new invention?
How does the new technology change the way people live their lives?
Overall, are these inventions beneficial or detrimental to society?

Mobility in war becomes a major theme in the 20th-century. Although World War I featured automated mobility, it was World War II where mobile warfare became efficient and reliable. The German blitzkrieg provides a stunning demonstration of the speed and efficiency by which warfare could be waged. The ability to mass produce tire-dependent vehicles of war so prominently displayed in the United States proved crucial to Allied victory. According to this module’s resources, “In 1942, experts in the federal government estimated that more than 60 million of the nation’s 135 million workers would be needed for government work in the war effort. (By 1945, the actual total outstripped even this estimate: more than 73 million workers labored for the government as part of the wartime economy.)”

World War II was truly what is known as “total war.” Total war is a condition where all available resources, people, and infrastructure are organized toward the war effort. Total victory is sought and the entire economy is geared to support the high cost of war. In order to conserve valuable resources for this purpose, the United States government urged its citizens use them frugally. These worn and bald tires are symbolic of America’s determination to extend the life of valuable resources such as rubber.

Rubber was and is still an extremely important material for war purposes. Sustaining open lines of international trade was a major mission of the U.S. Navy during World War II. Maintaining open lanes of international trade was instrumental in keeping the U.S. supplied with rubber. Merchant ships needed to travel freely and safely to and from Southeast Asia and South America with shipments of rubber. Therefore, these tires also represent the importance of international trade – a significant theme of 20th-century history.

America’s war footing required a massive harnessing of resources. The United States government instituted rationing as a strategy to corral and utilize necessary raw materials and finished products crucial for prosecuting the war. I recall my parents and my grandmother telling stories about rubber drives, gas coupons, butter and sugar shortages, and the collecting of copper for the war effort. Rationing became both a practical necessity and was propagandized as a moral imperative as government imposed restrictions on purchases and sales of choice materials and products. American citizens were encouraged to forgo temptations presented by black market profiteers and the lure of hoarding scarce products and materials. This heap of bald and damaged tires indicates America’s collective desire to survive the German and Japanese fascist onslaught against another major theme in American 20th-century history - the freedoms and liberties guaranteed by the United States constitution.

What is propaganda and how can it be executed for both the positive and the negative goals?
How was propaganda used by the United States government to influence commerce in the United States during World War II?
Why was government propaganda surrounding rationing specifically targeted mostly toward women?
How did posters promote adherence to rationing rules as a moral imperative?
Analyze the “Make this Pledge” poster. What is the meaning behind the “housewife’s pledge?”
Analyze the poster stating “I’ll carry mine too.” What does this mean and how does it apply to rationing?
Analyze the poster stating, “Keep it Free”. How does this poster represent changes in American factory production during the war?
How do these posters relate to the concept of “total war”?

Since war itself is a major theme of America’s Colonial Period, the musket ball serves to force us to examine battlefield tactics germane to the 18th century. The smoothbore musket was the dominant weapon of the common soldier during this time period. The musket was wildly inaccurate and time inefficient. This resulted in the development of battlefield tactics which are regarded as archaic and even stupid by today’s standards. Soldiers were very inaccurate using the musket and were therefore made to line up in close proximity to each other and were drilled and trained in loading and firing their weapons simultaneously and in concert with one another. This concurrent firing was to compensate for the individual soldier’s inaccuracy. Soldiers often gave up even trying to develop marksmanship skills due to the unreliable musket and musket ball technology. This tactic all but insured at least something of a target would be hit and made up for the fact that muskets and musket balls were notoriously heavy, clumsy, and inaccurate at any real distance.

The line soldiers were drilled into maintaining during battle served to overcome the inaccuracy of the technology of this time period. But, the line also was crucial for communication during battle. By forcing soldiers to remain very close together, officers were better able to direct their troops through various methods such as yelling, drum cadence, and musical instruments. As to be expected, many soldiers understood the peril the line tactic provided to each and every soldier. Many soldiers would break the line and attempt desertion. An important purpose of amassing soldiers using this line tactic was to enable officers to keep eyeballs on their troops and provide punishments for individuals who tried to run away. “As the 19th-century Prussian general Frederick the Great put it, an effective infantryman had to be more afraid of his own officers than of the enemy”.

Rifling the barrel seemed to be the solution to the inaccuracy of the musket. This created spin on the bullet creating a more accurate weapon. Unfortunately, early rifles took even longer than muskets to load and were used more for hunting than for warfare with the exception of especially skilled marksman. The beginnings of what we know today as snipers!

Perhaps the drilling, training, and the necessity to create “automatons” out of human beings who would initially balk at standing directly in the line of fire as mandated in battlefield tactics of this period led to the idea of a standing, professional army. American history, prior to World War II, shows a general aversion to a large professional standing military. The battlefield tactics of the 18th century requiring such high levels of discipline is an argument for a standing army – all politics aside. Regardless of technological changes in weaponry through time, discipline remains a high priority for military readiness. Eighteenth century warfare provides an example of why this is so.

Quote from Madison: "The means of defence against foreign danger, have been always the instruments of tyranny at home. Among the Romans it was a standing maxim to excite a war, whenever a revolt was apprehended. Throughout all Europe, the armies kept up under the pretext of defending, have enslaved the people."

Quote from Madison: “A standing military force, with an overgrown Executive will not long be safe companions to liberty,”

Quote from Madison: “The means of defense against foreign danger, have been always the instruments of tyranny at home. Among the Romans it was a standing maxim to excite a war, whenever a revolt was apprehended. Throughout all Europe, the armies kept up under the pretext of defending, have enslaved the people.”

Quote from Samuel Adams: “always dangerous to the Liberties of the People.” Soldiers were likely to consider themselves separate from the populace, to become more attached to their officers than their government, and to be conditioned to obey commands unthinkingly. The power of a standing army, Adams counseled, “should be watched with a jealous Eye.”

The Declaration of Independence contained numerous references to King George’s militarism (particularly his attempts to render the army independent of civilian authority, his insistence on quartering the troops among the people, and his importation of mercenaries to “compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny”); by the end of the War of Independence, hatred of a standing army had become a powerful and near-universal tradition among the American people; the professional British army was nothing less than a “conspiracy against liberty.”

(Above quotes from “Teaching History.org”)